RESEARCH: Abortion Act 1937 (4)

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/helped-make-abortion-legal-but-50-years-still-fighting-stop-stigma/
Article published on 25th October 2017

"I helped make abortion legal - but 50 years on I am still fighting to stop the stigma."

The impact of the stigma of abortion is discussed in this article, as a woman reflects upon knowing someone who died from an abortion as she wakes up from receiving one.

Back then, abortion was still illegal in this country. Had she been found out, Munday could have been imprisoned for wilfully terminating her pregnancy.
Possibly due to the sexual revolution.
Compares the female reproductive stymie to the "Dark Ages".

Family planning clinics wanted to see a wedding ring before handing out contraception, and sex outside of marriage was taboo.

Backstreet abortions had become commonplace, carried out by unqualified persons, midwives, or doctors who had been struck off - although many women attempted their own.

Those who could afford it, would pay off medical professionals to agree that they needed an abortion on physical or mental health grounds, in which case it could be performed legally. After 1967, it became legal for any woman from any background to terminate a pregnancy, not just the most priviliged - although they still need the permission of two doctors.

BBC documentary, Abortion on Trial

At the end of the article, there is a message attached: 
CORRECTION: The basis of this article's original headline ("My sons still can't forgive me for having an abortion") was a misreading of Diane Munday's comment that her sons were ashamed of her. This comment in fact related to her sons' attitude to the publicity surrounding her ongoing campaign to change abortion legislation, not to the fact of her 1961 termination. We are sorry for the misunderstanding.

This could argue that the validity of the article is questionable due to the reporting. For this, I can conclude that the article educated me in that of the social stigma and how this woman is still captaining and fighting for the Act.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Abortion Act 1937 (3)

https://www.pewforum.org/2008/09/30/abortion-laws-around-the-world/
Article published on 30th September 2008

Abortion Laws Around the World

North America

Canada
Since 1988, when the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that existing abortion restrictions were unconstitutional, abortion has been legal for any reason at any stage of the pregnancy. Provincial health insurance plan cover the cost of abortions performed in hospitals but do not consistently provide funding for abortions performed in free-standing clinics.

Mexico
Varies from state to state. Some states allow abortion only in instances when the mother’s life or physical health is at stake, in pregnancies involving possible fetal abnormalities or in cases of rape. The Roman Catholic Church and abortion opponents challenged the new law in courts, but in August 2008 the Supreme Court voted to uphold the new law. Thousands of women reportedly have traveled to the nation’s capital to receive abortions since the change was enacted.

Latin America

Brazil
Abortion is legal in Brazil only in cases of rape or incest or when the mother’s life is in danger. Under federal regulation, hospitals require a formal determination that a pregnancy has resulted from rape or incest before performing an abortion. Many women in Brazil illegally use the drug Cytotec to induce miscarriage, and the government estimates that more than 200,000 Brazilian women are hospitalized annually as a result of botched abortions.

Chile
In 1967, the Chilean Health Code formally legalized abortion when it was necessary to save the mother’s life. The measure was reversed in 1989 by then-President Augusto Pinochet, who made abortion illegal in all circumstances. Pinochet’s law is still in effect. In late 2006, President Michelle Bachelet authorized government distribution of the morning-after contraception pill to women ages 14 and older; but in April 2008, Chile’s Constitutional Tribunal suspended the program.

Colombia
Abortion was illegal in all circumstances until May 2006, when Colombia’s highest court ruled that the procedure can be performed in cases in which the mother’s life or physical health is in danger, in cases of rape or incest, or in pregnancies involving fatal or life-threatening fetal abnormalities. This decision has been the object of strong protests by abortion opponents but remains in effect. On Aug. 25, 2006, the first legal abortion was performed on an 11-year-old girl who had been raped by her stepfather. According to the government, more than 300,000 illegal abortions are performed annually in Colombia, where abortion is the third leading cause of maternal mortality.

El Salvador
Abortion is illegal in El Salvador in all cases, even when doctors consider the procedure to be medically necessary. Moreover, the government vigorously enforces the ban.

Nicaragua
In October 2006, the Nicaraguan National Assembly effectively banned abortion in all circumstances after voting to disallow exceptions to its already restrictive abortion laws. Previously, abortion was legal only in cases of rape or cases in which three doctors agreed that the mother’s life was in danger. There were six legal abortions in 2002, the last year for which figures are available. Health experts estimate the number of illegal abortions in Nicaragua to be more than 30,000 a year.

Western Europe

Germany
Although a 1995 law makes abortion illegal, neither doctors nor women are prosecuted if the mother is a victim of rape and the procedure is performed within 12 weeks of conception. A similar waiver exists in the first trimester for cases in which the mother has received counseling to encourage carrying her baby to term but still wants an abortion. After the first trimester, abortion is available only to preserve the life or mental or physical health of the mother. State insurance generally does not pay for the procedure except in cases of financial need.

Great Britain
Abortion is freely available in Great Britain due to a broad interpretation of the Abortion Act of 1967, which permits abortion for a variety of reasons if certified by two physicians. Within the first 24 weeks of pregnancy, these reasons may include: to save the life of the mother, to protect her physical or mental health, to terminate pregnancies involving fetal abnormality, or for social or economic reasons. In cases in which the mother’s life or health is “gravely threatened” or there is significant risk for fetal abnormality, there is no time limit on when an abortion may be performed. Currently, the British Parliament is considering legislation that would eliminate the requirement of two doctors’ approval before an abortion can be performed. It is estimated that about 200,000 abortions are performed in Great Britain each year.

Greece
Since 1986, abortion has been freely available in Greece during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. In cases involving a minor, or in instances of rape or incest, the procedure is legal through the 19th week of pregnancy. Abortions also can be obtained through the 24th week of pregnancy in cases of fetal abnormality. Despite liberal abortion laws, the advertising of abortion services is illegal.

Ireland
The Offenses Against the Person Act of 1861 (originally enacted by the United Kingdom but parts of which are still active in Ireland) banned abortion in all circumstances. Later court decisions established an exception to save the mother’s life. In 1983, a constitutional amendment strengthened the country’s abortion restrictions by establishing a fetus’s right to life, equating it with a woman’s right to life. The lack of access to abortion garnered attention in 1992 when a 14-year-old rape victim sought to travel to Great Britain to terminate her pregnancy. She was permitted to travel to Great Britain for this purpose only after the Irish Supreme Court ruled that requiring the girl to have the child might lead her to commit suicide. According to experts, each year more than 7,000 Irish women travel to Great Britain to receive abortions.

Spain
Abortion law in Spain legalizes the procedure at any point during pregnancy in cases in which the mother’s life or physical or mental health is at risk. Abortion is also allowed within 12 weeks of pregnancy in cases of rape and within 22 weeks of pregnancy in cases of fetal impairment. In 1991, Spain’s high court set a case-by-case precedent for determining whether abortion could be sanctioned. In 2006, nearly 100,000 abortions reportedly were performed in Spain. Though the government will pay for an abortion, approximately 60% of women choose to pay for the procedure themselves for reasons of convenience and confidentiality. Recently, Spain’s abortion laws became highly politicized after church groups accused private clinics of performing illegal abortions in Barcelona and Madrid. While the country’s socialist party advocates for more liberal abortion laws, opponents argue that abortion is already too accessible.

Sweden
Since 1974, abortion has been legal in Sweden in all circumstances within the first 18 weeks of pregnancy. After this point, abortions are only permissible to save the life or physical health of the mother, or if approval is granted by the National Board of Health and Welfare. To date, abortion has not been a politically controversial issue in Sweden.

Eastern Europe

Latvia

In 1955, when Latvia was part of the Soviet Union, abortion became freely available during the first trimester of pregnancy. In 1982, it was legalized within the first 28 weeks of pregnancy when required for broad health reasons. Five years later, abortions within the first 28 weeks were legalized for certain nonmedical reasons, including imprisonment of the mother, imprisonment of her husband, or divorce or rape. Under the same 1987 law, abortion in other cases is sanctioned if approved by a medical commission.

Poland
According to a law passed in 1993, abortion is legal in Poland throughout pregnancy to preserve the life or physical health the mother. During the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, abortion is also allowed in circumstances of rape, incest or fetal abnormality. In March 2007, the Council of Europe ordered Poland to compensate a Polish woman who had suffered a retinal hemorrhage after being denied an abortion despite doctors’ knowledge that carrying the baby to term would jeopardize her health. One month later, the Polish parliament rejected a constitutional amendment that would protect the “right to life from the moment of conception.” The Council of Europe has ordered all 46 member states, including Poland, to ensure that abortions are available in countries where they are legal.

Russia
Russia reportedly leads the world in the total number of abortions performed each year, which currently exceeds the country’s annual number of live births. Abortion is freely available during the first 12 weeks of gestation as well as at any point during the pregnancy in cases involving a risk to the life or health of the mother or severe fetal abnormalities. Since 2003, abortion has also been legal between the 12th and 22nd weeks of pregnancy on certain social grounds, including imprisonment, rape, or spousal disability or death.

Slovenia
Slovenia’s abortion laws stem from a statute enacted in the former Yugoslavia in 1977 that made abortion available through 10 weeks into a pregnancy. Abortion was also allowed in cases that threatened the mother’s life or cases that involved severe fetal abnormalities. The 1977 law is still in effect, and abortions are free under Slovenia’s health care system. In 2006, abortion came under the national spotlight when the minister of labor, family and social affairs, as part of a broader push to increase the country’s declining birth rate, proposed that the government subsidize only those abortions that were medically necessary to save the life of the mother. The minister was promptly asked to resign and the proposal was dropped.

Africa

Nigeria
Abortion is legal in Nigeria only to preserve the mother’s life, but health specialists report that large numbers of procedures are performed both in the predominately Christian South and the predominately Muslim North. In 2008, the Society of Gynecology and Obstetrics of Nigeria reported that 11% of maternal deaths in Nigeria are caused by unsafe abortions.

Senegal
Legislation based on an 1810 penal code makes abortion illegal in Senegal except to save the mother’s life. For a woman to qualify for an abortion, two physicians must concur that her life is in danger and one of these physicians must be on a court-approved list. These restrictions have attracted the attention of the U.N. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which has expressed concern over the health risks posed to women by the lack of access to legal abortions.

South Africa
Since 1996, abortion has been available without restrictions in South Africa within the first trimester of pregnancy if the mother’s physical or mental health is at risk, if the pregnancy compromises the mother’s social or economic situation, or if the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest. After the 20th week of pregnancy, abortion is available if the life of the mother or health of the fetus is at risk. In early 2008, the South African Parliament voted to relax abortion restrictions even further, establishing 24-hour abortion facilities and allowing nurses – not just midwives and doctors – to carry out the procedure. President Thabo Mbeki had yet to sign the bill into law when he resigned in September 2008.

Zimbabwe
The country’s abortion law was changed in 1977 to allow the procedure when the mother’s physical health is at risk, when the pregnancy is a result of “unlawful intercourse” such as rape or incest, when the fetus is at risk for physical or mental defects, or when the mother’s life is endangered. Formal authorization and certification is required in all of these circumstances, a process that some abortion rights advocates say drives many women to seek illegal abortions.

Middle East

Tunisia
Compared with other Muslim countries, Tunisia has very liberal abortion policies. Abortions are available during the first trimester and after 12 weeks when the mother’s physical or mental health is at risk and in cases of fetal abnormalities; however, in more traditional communities, doctors may be less willing to perform abortions in situations that are considered taboo, such as pregnancies resulting from extramarital affairs or premarital sex. As a result, women often resort to illegal abortions.

Egypt
The Egyptian Penal Code of 1937 bans abortion in all circumstances, but criminal law allows flexibility on grounds of “necessity.” Physicians rely on that principle to justify performing an abortion when they believe the mother’s life or health is in danger or in cases of fetal abnormality. A committee of physicians must agree that the abortion is acceptable within the confines of the law.

Iran
Abortion has been illegal in Iran since the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Although there are no explicit exceptions to this prohibition, Iranian law generally allows acts that are performed to save the life of a person; thus, it is commonly understood that abortion is illegal except when necessary to save the mother’s life. In 2005, the Iranian parliament passed a measure allowing abortions within the first four months of pregnancy in cases of fetal impairment that would result in economic burden; the measure was ultimately blocked by the Iranian Guardian Council.

Israel
A 1977 law made abortion legal in Israel to save the mother’s life or to preserve her mental or physical health. Abortion is also allowed in cases of rape, incest or fetal impairment, as well as in cases involving a wide range of difficult social circumstances. In 1979, those social circumstances were eliminated as an explicit reason for abortion, but leniency within the law still exists. For instance, being unmarried or being under the age of 17 or over the age of 40 constitutes a social circumstance in which an abortion is allowed. All abortions must be authorized by a medical committee composed of a social worker and two physicians.

Turkey
A 1983 law makes abortion legal in Turkey in all circumstances within 10 weeks of pregnancy. After 10 weeks, abortion is legal if the mother’s life is at risk, if her physical or mental health is in danger or if her pregnancy involves fetal abnormalities. Parental- and spousal-consent requirements are in effect, but they can be waived if the risk to the mother’s life constitutes an immediate danger.

Asia

China
Abortion is virtually freely available in China, and there are no defined time limits for access to the procedure. Although sex-selective abortion is prohibited, critics say that China’s one-child-per-family policy encourages the widespread abortion of female fetuses by couples intent on having a son. Today in China there are an estimated 120 boys born for every 100 girls. Human-rights groups have long accused the Chinese government of condoning mandatory abortions as a means of controlling population growth. The practice is believed to be less common today than it was in the 1980s and early 1990s, when the one-child policy was more strictly enforced.

India
Abortion is available in India during the first 20 weeks of pregnancy in cases in which the mother’s life or physical or mental health is at risk, in cases of rape or fetal abnormality, or for social or economic reasons. However, to obtain an abortion between the 12th and 20th weeks of pregnancy, two medical practitioners must agree that the procedure is necessary. In 1994, to combat sex-selective abortion of female fetuses, the Indian government outlawed the practice of using prenatal testing to reveal the sex of the child. But such abortions are still widely practiced and rarely prosecuted.

Japan
Japan’s Eugenic Protection Law, passed in 1948, promoted liberal policies on abortion and sterilization with the intent of fostering a genetically healthy population. In 1996, new legislation omitted all references to eugenics and established regulations making abortion legal within the first 24 weeks of pregnancy to save the mother’s life or to protect her physical health. Abortion is also allowed in cases of rape and for economic or social reasons.

Philippines
Abortion has been illegal in the Philippines since 1930, when it was first criminalized. The only acceptable reason for an abortion is when the mother’s life is in danger, in which case permission for the abortion must be obtained from a board of medical professionals. The 1975 Child and Youth Welfare Code established that a person has inherent dignity from the moment of conception. The Constitution of 1987 reinforces this ruling, requiring that the state “equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception.”

In conclusion, this article helped me to gain an understanding of the social context around the world of different countries using a similar law.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Abortion Act 1937 (2)

https://www.abortionrights.org.uk/history-of-abortion-law-in-the-uk/

The first reference to abortion in English law appeared in the 13th century. The law followed the Church teaching that abortion was acceptable until "quickening", which was believed that that was when the soul entered the foetus.

Legal situation remained like this for centuries.

• 1803: The  Act - abortion after "quickening" (i.e. the movement is felt at 16-20 weeks) carried the death penalty. Previous punishment was less severe.
• 1837: The Ellenborough Act was amended to remove the distinction between abortion before and after quickening.
• 1861: The Offences Against the Person Act - performing an abortion or trying to self-abort carried the sentence of life imprisonment.
• 1929: Infant Life Preservation Act - created a new crime of killing a viable foetus (at that time it was fixed at 28 weeks) in all cases except when the woman's life was at risk. However, it want clear whether it would be legal to terminate for the same reason before 28 weeks.
• 1923-1933: Fifteen per cent of maternal deaths were due to illegal abortion.
• 1936: The Abortion Law Reform Association (ALRA) was established - its aim was to campaign for the legalisation of abortion.
• 1938: Dr Alex Bourne was acquitted of having performed an illegal abortion. (set a case-law precedent)
• 1939: The Brickett Committee, which had been set up by the Government, recommended clarification that doctors could perform an abortion to save a woman's life. WW2 mean that the implementation of its findings where delayed.
• 1952-1961: ALRA campaigned unsuccessfully for bills to legalise abortion. Support for the reform grows.
• 1967: The Abortion Act (sponsored by David Steel, MP) became law, legalising abortion under certain conditions.
• 1975: The National Abortion Campaign (NAC) was established to protect the 1967 Act and camp gained for its improvements.
• 1990: The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Bill introduced specific time-limits on abortions.
• 2003: NAC and ALRA merged to form Abortion Rights.

In conclusion, this article was very useful as it set out a timeline of how abortion came to what it is today. This article may be biased as the article is from a "pro-choice" website.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESERCH: Abortion Act 1967 (1)

https://jme.bmj.com/content/27/suppl_2/ii33 
Article published on 1st October 2001

Introduction

• Came into effect on 27th of April 1967.
• Permits the termination of a pregnancy by a registered practitioner (under certain conditions)
• Application in England and Wales.
• Regulations under The Abortion Regulations 1968 - requires any such termination to be notified within seven days, to the Chief Medical Officer to the Department of Health or to the Chief Medical Officer of the Welsh Officer.
• Section 37 of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 made changes to the Abortion Act 1967.

Conditions of the Act and statutory grounds

A legally induced abortion must be:

• performed by a registered medical practitioner.
• performed, except in an emergency, in a NHS hospital or in a place for the time being approved for the purpose of the Act.
• certified by two registered medical practitioners, as justified under one or more of the following grounds:

1. the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk to the life of the pregnant woman greater than if the pregnancy were terminated.
2. the termination is necessary to prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman.
3. the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk, greater to the life of the pregnant woman greater than if the pregnancy were terminated.
4. the termination is necessary to prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman.
5. the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk, greater than if the pregnancy were terminated, of injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman.
6. the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk, greater than if the pregnancy were terminated, or injury to the physical or mental of any existing child(ren) of the family of the pregnant woman.
7. there is substantial risk that if the child were born it would suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped; or in emergency, certified by the operating practitioner as immediately necessary.
8. to save the life of the pregnant woman.
9. to prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman.

The Act provides that in relation to grounds C and D the certifying practitioner may take account of the pregnant woman's actual or reasonably foreseeable environment.

Changes made after the Abortion Act 1937 by section 37 of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990.

Category of premises/purchaser

Expect in emergencies, abortion operations may only be carried out in NHS hospitals, in certain approved services' hospitals or in the other premises specifically approved by the secretary of state. (e.g: clinics run by the British Pregnancy Advisory Service (BPAS)).

Abortion statistics

In 1991, there were 173,701 abortions performed on women resident in England and Wales.

How the number and rate of abortions has changed

• From 1968 to 1973, the annual number of legal abortions increased rapidly then levelled off to 100,000 a year.
• Abortion numbers then rose each year until 1991, mainly because the numbers the numbers of women in the population aged 15 to 44 grew due to a large increase in the birth rate in Britain between 1956 and 1963.
• More abortions between 1975 and 1990 because there were more women to become pregnant.
• Number of abortions remain stable between 1998 and 1999.
• reasons from new stability could be due to abortion becoming a more acceptable solution than ever before when contraception fails or has been used incorrectly.

Numbers and rates of abortions carried out on residents of England and Wales for the last five years:

• 1995: 154,315 or 12.0 per 1000 women aged 14-49.
• 1996: 167,916 or 13.0 per 1000 women aged 14-49.
• 1997: 170,15 or 13.3 per 1000 women aged 14-49.
• 1998: 177,871 or 13.9 per 1000 women aged 14-49.
• 1999: 173,701 or 13.6 per 1000 women aged 14-49.

Number of abortions declined between 1990 and 1995 - possibly better use of contraception.

Who pays for abortions?

• Abortions are not automatically available through the NHS.
• On average, the NHS pays for just under three quarters (74%) of abortions in England and Wales.
• Significant differences between regions.

At what gestation do most abortions occur?

Almost 90% of abortions are in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. Just 1% are after 20 weeks.

Abortions in England and Wales in 1999 by gestation (total 173,701):

• under 9 weeks: 73,882 or 43%
• 9-12 weeks: 80,800 or 46%
• 13-19 weeks: 17,274 or 10%
• 20 weeks and over: 1,745 or 1%

Later abortions may be due to:

• the woman not being able to get a hospital appointment earlier in the pregnancy.
• the woman may not have realised the they were pregnant.
• very young women may feel unable to cope and so hide the pregnancy.
• sometimes the pregnancy was originally wanted but the woman's circumstances change.
• fetal abnormality is an important reason for late abortions, as many cannot be diagnosed early in pregnancy.

At what age do people have abortions?

Abortions in England and Wales 1999 by age (totally 173,701):

• under 16: 3,603 or 2%
• 16-19: 32,807 or 19%
• 20-24: 45,004 or 26%
• 25-29: 38,492 or 22%
• 30-34: 29,139 or 16%
• 35-44: 24,096 or 14%
• 45 and over: 502
• not stated: 58

Why do women from abroad travel to Britain for abortion?

In 1999, almost 100,000 women who lived abroad travelled to England to have an abortion.

Most of these women come from the British Isles, mainly Northern Ireland (1,430) and the Irish republic (6,226).

Those from elsewhere in the world come to Britain because abortion is only available in their countries, until 12 weeks (France and Italy), or not available at all (Arab States).

The numbers have fallen from their peak of 57,000 in 1973 because most of the other European countries now have abortion laws that are less restrictive than those in Britain.

In conclusion, I found this source very interesting as it breaks down the key elements of the Act, and also the impact of the wider world. However, this source is a journal, and so someone has written it for assessment purposes. It was also published in 2001, arguably making it outdated. The journal is also from a medical view point, not legal, which I shall consider.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Martrimonial Causes Act 1937 (4)

https://vardags.com/family-law/the-history-of-our-grounds-for-divorce
Article published on 17th May 2016

The History of Our Grounds for Divorce

In the English law, there is only one 'ground' for divorce - "irretrievable breakdown of a marriage" - but there are five 'facts' that can constitute this:

• Adultery
• Unreasonable behaviour
• Desertion
• Living apart for two years WITH the spouse's consent to divorce
• Living apart for five years WITHOUT the spouse's consent to divorce

The Royal Commission, and a Union of Suffragist Societies influenced these five 'facts'.

Before the five 'facts':

• The only way men could get out of a marriage was to prove adultery.
• Even harder for women, who had to prove adultery and additional offences (e.g. incest, sodomy, cruelty - which would become known as domestic violence)

A Royal Commission suggested broadening the grounds for divorce - nothing was done.

Over the following years, the support for broadening the grounds for divorce began to grow, slowly.

The biggest catalyst to public opinion, however, came in 1934 with the publication of the bestselling Holy Deadlock, a satirical novel by A. P. Herbert, which shed light on the inequalities and absurdities of divorce law at the time.

• Herbert took the vacant seat in the House of Commons, a year later.
• Drafted Private Member's Bill, which proposed that 'adultery' be joined by 'cruelty', 'desertion without cause' and 'incurable insanity'.

The Bill was largely ignored for two years.

The law has changed a little in the past eighty years. What was then 'desertion' has since been divided into three distinct facts, while ‘cruelty’ is now the broader ’unreasonable behaviour’. 'Incurable insanity’ was removed completely as mental health came to be better understood.

In conclusion, I found this article valid as it was written from a top legal firm in the Uk, that specialise in divorce and family matters.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Matrimonial Causes Act 1937 (3)

https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/relationships/overview/wedlock-or-deadlock/

Matrimonial Causes Act 1937

• 1937 - law was changed by this Act, which Herbert has=d introduced as a Private Members' Bill.
• Extended grounds for divorce to include desertion for over three years, cruelty and incurable insanity.
• Herbert's Act led to a significant increase in the annual number of divorces.
• Process is still expensive.

1969 Divorce Reform Act

• Followed recommendations for reform by the Law Commission.
• Made martial breakdown a reason for divorce.
• Removes necessity for either partner to rove the other at fault in order to end the marriage.

Domestic Violence and Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1976

• Further campaigning by the women's movement achieved further change in the 1976 Domestic Violence and Matrimonial Proceedings Act.
• This provided legal protection to female victims of domestic violence.

In conclusion, I believe this article to be credible as it is from the Parliament's website.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Matrimonial Causes Act 1937 (2)

https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/relationships/keydates/

• 1700-1857: Parliament passes 314 Private Acts of Parliament for divorce.
• 1753 - Marriage Act: All marriages to take place in a church or chapel of the Church of England.
• 1836 - Marriage Act: Allows religious nonconformists and catholics to marry in their own places of worship.
• 1839 - Custody of Infants Act: Allowed mothers to petition for custody of their children up to the age of seven.
• 1857 - Matrimonial Causes Act: Divorce proceedings transferred from Parliament to a court of law.
• 1861 - Offences Against the Person Act
• 1864, 1866, 1869 - Contagious Diseases Act: Impose controls against prostitution, but are later repealed.
• 1870 - Married Women's Property Act: Declares money and property earned by a woman in marriage is her own.
• 1873 - Infant Custody Act: States that custody must depend on needs of children.
• 1878 - Matrimonial Causes Act: Allows women victims of violence in marriage to obtain separation orders.
• 1882 - Women's Property Act: Allows women to have absolute control over their own money and property.
• 1885 - Criminal Law Amendment Act: Aims to protect young women from vice.
• 1908 - Incest Act: Defines incest as a crime.
• 1909-1910 - Royal Commission on Marriage and Divorce
• 1923 - Matrimonial Causes Act: Makes adultery by either husband or wife the sole ground for divorce.
• 1925 - Summary Jurisdiction (separation and Maintenance) Act: Extends grounds on which either married partner could obtain separation.
• 1926 - Legitimacy Act: Allows children to be legitimated by subsequent marriage of their parents.
• 1926 - Adoption Act: Introduces tighter regulations in adoption procedures.
• 1954-1957 - Wolfenden Committee: Reviews laws against homosexual activity and prosecution.
• 1959 - Street Offences Act: Stricter control on street prosecution.
• 1959 - Legitimacy Act: Extends right to legitimacy.
• 1967 - Sexual Offences Act (England and Wales): Allows homosexual acts in private between men over the age of 21.
• 1969 - Divorce Reform Act: Martial breakdown accepted as grounds for divorce.
• 1976 - Domestic Violence and Matrimonial Proceedings Act
• 1976 - Adoption Act: allows adopted children access to their original birth certificates.
• 1987 - Family Law Reform Act: Removes all remaining distinctions between children born to married and unmarried parents.
• 1994 - Criminal Justice and Public Order Act: lowered the age of consent for gay men from 21 to 18; in 2001, it was lowered to 16.
• 2004 - Civil Partnership Act: Gave same sex couples the same legal rights and responsibilities as married heterosexual couples.
• 2013 - Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act: In 2013, Parliament passed this Act, which introduced civil marriage for same-sex couples in England and Wales. The first same-sex marriages in England and Wales took place in March 2014.

In conclusion, I found this article credible because it is from Parliament's own website.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Matrimonial Causes Act 1937 (1)

https://lawexplores.com/ground-for-divorce-under-the-matrimonial-causes-act-1937/
Article published 6th December 2019

Can petition for divorce under:

• (a) had since the celebration of the marriage committed adultery
• (b) deserted the petitioner without cause for a period of at least three years immediately preceding the presentation of the petition
• (c) since the celebration of the marriage treated the petitioner with cruelty
• (d) A spouse could also petition on the ground that the other was incurably of unsound mind and had been continuously under care and treatment for a period of at least five years immediately preceding the presentation of the petition.

The Act also amended the law about the application of the bars to divorce originally laid down in the 1857 Act.

• Adultery
• Desertion
• Cruelty

In conclusion, I found this article reliable due to the amount of sources linked throughout. However, it is wrote by an unknown author.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Representation of the People Act 1918 (4)

https://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/discover/1918-election-first-time-women-voted
Article published on December 14th 2018

• 100 years ago, after decades of campaigning, women were finally given the right to vote in British elections.
• The December general election of 1918, saw 8.5 million women eligible to vote and 17 female candidates stood for election. (Only one was elected and she never went to Parliament.)
• Called in the immediate aftermath of WW1.
• Sometimes referred to as the Fourth Reform Act.

Women still didn't have the same rights as men

• Before WW1, only men who owned a certain amount of property had been able to vote.
• About 60% of male householders had the vote, but millions of men didn't.
• Including many returning soldiers.
• The Act abolished the property qualification, allowing all classes over the age of 21 to vote - as long as they were male.
• Women were discriminated against.
• Women ended property qualifications.
• Measured by the value of the property they lived in, which had an annual rent of £5. (equal to £1000 today)
• Only women over the age of 30 were allowed to vote.

Fears of out-voting men

• About 40% of Britain's female population, and women also made up 40% of the electorate (21.4 million people in 1918). 
• Due to the deaths of the First World War, there were over a million more women than men in Britain, and the age limit was introduced to prevent women from being in a political majority. 
• Suffrage campaigners like Milicent Fawcett were disappointed at the continued discrimination, but accepted it as a necessary and temporary compromise to get the vote.

In conclusion, I found this article to be credible, due to it being part of the Museum Of London. 

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Feminists documentary - Netflix

I watched this documentary in aid of my research, as it is of another form of research type.

The documentary revolves around a book of photographs of women, captured by Cynthia Macadams. In the documentary, it tracks down the original women in the photos and asked their opinions on feminism today.

I found it interesting as it is an American documentary, which allowed me to learn about the influences by the USA on the UK and English Legal System.

I also learnt about the difference in generational gaps, as it showed women from the photos taking their children to protests. It also suggests the stigma as bing labelled a "feminist".

In conclusion, I found this source bias to women who were feminists (some who identified as feminists and some who didn't). I also believe that this subject is very topical, and so Netflix is often linked with the younger generation.



(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the official documentary, found on Netflix.)

RESEARCH: Representation of the People Act 1918 (3)

https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/42794339
Article published on February 6th 2018.

This source is aimed at children, as it is taken from BBC's Newsround. However I found the video and article very good for breaking the issue down into simple terms. (I wish I had found this at the beginning of researching this Act, as a simple starting point.)

What was the law?

• Important law because it allowed women to vote for the very first time.
• Also allowed all men over 21 to vote.
• Before this law, women were not allowed to vote in general elections.
• Some men could vote, but not all of them (based on property and wealth)
• The contribution made during WW1 by men and women who didn't have the right to vote became an important reason for the law changing.
• Even after the Act, men and women still didn't have the same rights when it came to politics.
• The law said that women over the age of 30 who occupied a house (or were married to someone who did) could now vote.
• 8.5 million women now had the right to vote - 2 in every 5 women in the UK.
• All men over the age of 21 could vote - regardless of whether or not they owned property.
• Men in the armed forces could vote from the age of 19.
• The number of men who could vote grew from 8 million to 21 million.
• Still unequal between men and women.
• Another ten years before women were allowed to vote the same way as men.
• Important step in the fight for equality for women in society.

Voting in the past

• The Monarch used to have the majority if power over Parliament.
• Early 1800s, very few people could still vote - the ones that could were all men and women didn't have a say at all.
• Throughout the 19th century, groups like the Chartists campaigned to allow all men to be able to vote.
• In 1832 and 1867, laws were passed which did allow more men to vote than could before, but still didn't apply to all men.
• Women still didn't have a say in who could sit in Uk Parliament.

The role of women

• Up until Victorian times (1837-1901) women had very little rights - especially once married.
• Became tradition that women shouldn't be part of politics. (Queen Victoria agreed)
• Believed that women's place was at home, raising children and running the house.
• Increasing number of women getting full-time jobs.
• Made it easier for them to discuss politics and issues which affected their lives.
• Many were not happy about how society treated them so differently to men.

Time for change

• When the laws were passed in the 19th century that gave men more voting rights, and women were still left out.
• They began to campaign for their right to be able to vote
• Women wanted more equality in society in general - but their right to vote became the focus of their fight.
• Men who also campaigned for their right to vote too, but it was not a popular opinion.
• Changes in the law, since 1870, were all in favour of women receiving the vote.
• Weren't successful.
• Emmeline Pankhurst.
• Suffrage - "right to vote".
• Emily Davison

World War One

• Many women took on jobs that men traditionally did, whilst they were away fighting.
• Emmeline Pankhurst focused her efforts on helping the war effort and encouraged other suffragettes to do the same. She pointed out that there was no point in continuing to fight for the vote during the time of war.
• Gained women's suffrage a lot of respect - attitudes towards women began to change, in society.
• During this time, there were no elections to choose a new government.
• Women proved themselves to be as equal as en and the government promised to give women the right to vote when the war was finished.
• The Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed in February 1918, and women voted in the first general election in December that year.

What has happened since?

• Work done by Suffragettes and Suffragists in the years leading up to WW1 was extremely important for women getting the vote.
• Wasn't until the Equal Franchise Act 1928 that suffrage was extended to all women over the age of 21 - women finally had the same voting rights as men.
• Up until 1918, women hadn't been allowed to be MPs in Parliament.
• Different law passed in the same year as the Representation of People Act changed this too. In December 1918, the first women was elected into the House of Commons.
• UK has advanced a long way.
• Before the 20th century, there had been no female prime ministers.
• There are still more male MPs in Parliament.
• There is still inequality in the UK between men and women in different eras of life.
• People are also treated differently all around the world based on gender - more work to be done in the UK and other countries. 

In conclusion, I found this source to be reliable as it is from the BBC , which is an established and trusted organisation in the UK. They are one of the most well known and well used news agency, which adds to their credibility. 

It also had many relevant videos, which I may use to look at the effects of the Act.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

RESEARCH: Representation of the People Act 1918 (2)

https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/the-representation-of-the-people-act-1918-a-democratic-milestone-in-the-uk-and-ireland/
Article published on February 6th 2018.

• Virtually gave the right to vote to all men and some women on 06/02/1918.
• Range of centenary events.
• Arguably one of the most important centenaries in the democratic history of the UK.
• The origins of the vote was to give the vote to all men, not women.
• Great Reform Act 1832 - gave increasing numbers of men the vote.
• Approximately 40% of men couldn't vote before 1914 due to residential and property requirements. (includes the poorest in society; soldiers, sailors and students who move frequently; and men such as adult sons living in their parents' houses)
• 1916 - political consensus for the need for a "solider's vote"
• Fifty years of suffragist and suffragette campaigning meant that the question then had to be asked: what about the women? 
• One million additional women entered the workforce during the war, many in roles formerly perceived to be men’s work. Although militancy stopped at the outbreak of war, women never ceased campaigning behind the scenes.
• 1918 Act - virtually gave the vote to all men over the age of 21, approximately 13 million men.
• Men on active military/naval service in the war were allowed to vote from the age of 19.
• Women did not receive the same terms to vote as men.
• Act gave 8.4 million women the right to vote.
• Women had to be aged 30 or older, and also they (or their husbands) had to qualify for the local government franchise. (occupying either a dwelling-house of any value, or land or premises of a yearly value of not less than £5)
• Women finally achieved the same terms in the Equal Franchise Act 1928.

Website's conclusion:

• Despite its inequalities, the 1918 Act marks a huge milestone in the democratic history of the UK and Ireland for two reasons; universal male suffrage, and gender no longer an automatic a barrier to voting in Parliamentary elections.  The centenary fully deserves celebration, and hopefully given the public interest, by the end of 2018 people will enjoy a better understanding of what the Act actually achieved for both men and women.

In conclusion, I believe this source to be of a valid source as the website is for an established human rights organisation.This article gave me insight into the different terms men and women had, when they were given the vote.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)

LESSON: Evaluating the reliability/credibility of secondary sources online

https://www.independent.co.uk/money/uk-minimum-wage-at-20-years-increase-better-off-strikes-fat-cat-day-inflation-linked-social-division-a8141336.html

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
This organisation is a British newspaper. They are a politically independent national moving paper, beginning as a broadsheet and changed to a tabloid format in 2003.
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
This article is a report piece, as it reports on the issue of minimum wage from an objective point of view.
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Kate Hughes. Kate Hughes is the money editor for the Independent.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
Some pieces of information are hyperlinked to previous articles by the newspaper. They also include many statistics and reference institutions such as FSTE.


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VaWCjDmjeIA&feature=youtu.be

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
Citizens UK. They campaign for changes for the people of the UK
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
Report style, but from the opinion of the organisation.
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Unknown.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
There is a link in the description of the video, citing www.livingwage.org.uk


https://minimumwage.blog.gov.uk/2018/04/05/above-inflation-pay-rise-for-minimum-wage-workers/

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
The Government, but also the Low Pay Commission. They are the governing body of the UK.
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
It is a report.
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Sarah Morgan. She has only written one piece for the blog.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
Links to the National Living Wage, UK Minimum Wage Rates, and Young Workers sections on the website.


https://inews.co.uk/opinion/comment/the-problem-with-paying-people-on-zero-hours-contracts-a-higher-minimum-wage-259760

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
I News.Aimed at commuters of any age, with limited time. Sister paper is the Independent.
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
Report.
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Professor Len Shackleton. He has only written one article for I News.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
Yes, they use lots of sources. This adds to the sources credibility.


https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/hec.3336

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
Wiley Online Library. Online subscription service.
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
Research.
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Aaron Reeves. department of Sociology, University of Oxford.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
Yes, there is a section dedicated to references.


https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00653.x

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
Wiley Online Library. Online subscription service.
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
Research.
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Peter Dolton. Department of Economics, University of London.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
Yes, there is a section dedicated to references.


https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/790910/20_years_of_the_National_Minimum_Wage_-_a_history_of_the_UK_minimum_wage_and_its_effects.pdf

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
National Minimum Wage - Low Pay Commission. Government departments.
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
Report.
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Only the commission, now individuals.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
Mentions of where the statistics have come from.


https://labour.org.uk/manifesto/fair-deal-work/

Who are the organisation who have published it? What do they do?
The Labour Party are a political party, who mainly focus on the north of England and working class people.
Is it a report, a piece of research or an opinion piece?
Opinion?
Who wrote it? Does it give their name? If so, who are they and what do they do?
Exact author is unknown.
Do they give links to the sources of their information?
No.

RESEARCH: Representation of the People Act 1918 (1)

https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/what-was-the-1918-representation-of-the-people-act/
Article published on February 7th 2018

What did the Act achieve?

• Parliamentary act passed in the final year of the First World War that tripled suffrage in Britain and Ireland.
• Expanded the franchise to include some women. 
• Entitled all men over the age of 21 to the vote and granted suffrage to women over 30. (as long as they were either owners of property, or married to owners of property)
• June 1917, the Representation of the People Bill had been passed by a large majority in the House of Commons, with 385 votes for to 55 against.
• Act became law after receiving Royal Assent on 6 February 1918.
• The size of the electorate triple from 7.7 million to 21.4 million.
•  9.2 million new female voters and 4.5 million new male voters.
• The act also stipulated that women were for the first time allowed to sit in the House of Commons. 
• While Irish republican Countess Constance Markievicz was the first woman to be elected to the Commons in December 1918, as a member of Sinn Féin she did not take her seat. It wasn’t until December 1919 that Nancy Astor was successfully elected as the MP for Plymouth Sutton and became the first woman to ever sit in the House of Commons.

Why was the Act passed in 1918?

• At the beginning of the First World War, approximately 60 per cent of adult men were entitled to the vote.
• As the war progressed, it was clear that electoral reform would be needed to address the fact that many men returning from the war would not be able to vote, as they did not meet existing property qualifications.
• The 1867 Parliamentary Reform Act had notably granted the vote to occupiers in the boroughs (people who rented properties rather than owning them) as well as lodgers who paid rent of £10 a year or more and in 1884, a Third Reform Act extended these voting rights to the counties. 
• Following the 1884 act, approximately two in three men now had the vote.
• When war arrived in August 1914, campaigners’ activities were largely halted.
• As many men left home and work to fight in the conflict, women were required to step into roles that had previously been considered outside of their sphere, such as munitions work or farm labour.

When did all women receive the vote in Britain?

• It would be another 10 years before all women in Britain would receive the vote. 
• Women were allowed to sit in the House of Lords as life peers (who are unable to pass their title on to their children) from 1958, but they could not sit as hereditary peers (those who had inherited their titles) until 1963.

Was Britain the first country to enfranchise women?

• New Zealand was the first nation to explicitly grant women the right to vote, in 1893
• Australia followed suit in 1902, though suffrage was still restricted for indigenous Australians.
• Finland granted women the right to vote in 1906 and Norway in 1913.
• In the USA, the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution, ratified on 18 August 1920, granted all American women the right to vote for the first time.
• For French campaigners, the female vote wouldn’t come until April 1945, in the first election to be held after the country was liberated from Nazi occupation.

In conclusion, I found this source valid as the source is an established, online, magazine publication. I really found interesting the final paragraph about the influences on and from the whole world.

(In the post above, I have noted my findings for further use, all information is from the link at the top of this page.)